Herbal Remedies and Natural Treatments

The Norse pharmacopoeia was firmly rooted in the flora of Scandinavia, the North Atlantic, and the lands they raided and traded with. Healers, often called læknir, would gather plants according to seasonal cycles, believing that the timing of harvest and the phase of the moon could influence a plant’s potency. Knowledge was passed orally and through practical apprenticeship, with certain families preserving specialized recipes for salves, teas, and poultices. Women played a central role as the keepers of this botanical knowledge, often tending household gardens where medicinal herbs were grown alongside vegetables and seasoning plants.

Key Healing Plants and Their Applications

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) was among the most valued herbs for wound treatment. Its common name is even a nod to Achilles, who according to legend used it on the battlefield. Veterinary applications were also common: horses and livestock were treated with yarrow poultices for cuts and bruises. Yarrow’s ability to staunch bleeding and reduce inflammation made it a staple in any healer’s kit.

Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) not only supported digestion but was also hung over doorways to ward off malevolent spirits during illness. The plant’s volatile oils have antispasmodic and antimicrobial properties, making it useful for stomach cramps and mild infections. Mugwort was also used in healing steam baths, where the patient would sit over a basin of hot water infused with the herb.

Willow bark was chewed or steeped into a tea to reduce fevers and alleviate joint pain. The active compound salicin, a natural precursor to aspirin, provided genuine relief. This remedy was so effective that it continued in Scandinavian folk medicine well into the 19th century, often collected in spring when the bark’s sap was richest.

Garlic (Allium sativum) was used both as a food preservative and a medicinal agent. Its antibacterial and antifungal properties made it a common treatment for respiratory infections and intestinal parasites. In the sagas, garlic is sometimes mentioned in the context of cleansing wounds, and sailors carried cloves to prevent scurvy and fortify the body against disease.

Seaweed, particularly dulse and bladderwrack, provided iodine for thyroid health. Coastal communities often applied dried seaweed directly to wounds to draw out infection and promote healing. The high mineral content also supported recovery after illness. Bladderwrack was occasionally boiled and the resulting broth given to convalescents to rebuild strength.

Birch bark contains betulin, a compound with anti-inflammatory properties. Norse healers would steep birch bark in hot water and use the liquid as a wash for skin rashes and eczema. The bark itself could be used as a splint material for broken bones; its flexibility and strength made it ideal for immobilizing limbs. Birch tar, produced by dry distillation, was a powerful antiseptic applied directly to wounds.

Bog myrtle (Myrica gale) was brewed into a tea for fevers and colds. Its fragrant leaves were also burned in sickrooms to purify the air, a practice that foreshadows modern aromatherapy. Bog myrtle was also used as an insect repellent, helping to prevent the spread of disease in marshy settlements.

Angelica (Angelica archangelica) was highly revered and often called “the root of the Holy Ghost.” It was chewed to soothe coughs and aid digestion, and its stems were candied as a sweet remedy for chest congestion. Norse settlers in Iceland and Greenland relied on angelica as one of the few native plants with both medicinal and nutritional value.

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale), known for its ability to speed bone and tissue repair, was mashed into poultices and applied over fractures. Its common name “knitbone” reflects its traditional use. Healers would harvest the root in autumn, dry it, and store it for winter injuries.

Preparation Methods

Herbs were prepared in several ways depending on the condition. Poultices were made by crushing fresh or dried plants into a paste and applying them directly to the skin, often held in place with linen bandages. Infusions (teas) were used for internal ailments, while decoctions (boiled longer to extract stronger compounds) were preferred for roots and bark. Salves were created by infusing herbs in animal fat, then adding beeswax for consistency. Healers also used tinctures of herbs in mead or vinegar for long-term storage. Mead-based tinctures were particularly valued because alcohol could preserve plant compounds for months.

The Vikings also imported exotic herbs through trade networks. Cinnamon, ginger, and other spices from the East were highly prized and used sparingly, often in combination with local remedies for serious illnesses. Evidence of such trade has been found in archaeological sites like Birka and Hedeby, where merchants brought frankincense and myrrh—both used as antiseptics and incense during healing rituals. Silk from Byzantium sometimes contained traces of medicinal herbs, suggesting that cloth itself was used to wrap and deliver treatments.

For further reading on Viking medicinal plants, see the National Museum of Sweden’s historical botanical collection and the Medievalists.net article on Viking herbalism.

Rituals, Spirituality, and Healing

In the Viking worldview, illness was rarely seen as a purely physical phenomenon. Spiritual imbalance—whether caused by angry ancestors, vættir (land spirits), or the malicious magic of an enemy—could manifest as disease or injury. Healers therefore combined pragmatic treatments with rituals designed to restore cosmic order. The boundaries between medical practice and religious observance were indistinct; a successful cure required both a skilled hand and the favor of the gods.

The Role of Seiðr and Shamanistic Practices

The völva (seeress) or seiðr practitioner was a key figure in healing. These individuals, often women but occasionally men, could enter trance states, travel between worlds, and negotiate with spirits for the recovery of a patient. They chanted galdrar (magical songs) and used drums, staffs, and masks to invoke divine aid. A völva’s staff—often topped with a metal knob or carved with runes—was a tool of power, used to point toward the source of illness or to strike the ground and release protective energy.

Ritual cleansing was common: a sick person might be washed in water taken from a sacred spring or symbolically “cut” with a knife to remove spiritual impurities. The sagas describe instances where a völva would walk around the patient’s home, sprinkling water and reciting charms to drive away evil. Bloodletting, though used for physical conditions, also had a ritual component—releasing “bad blood” was thought to free the body from malevolent forces.

Gods and Goddesses Invoked for Healing

Freyja was the primary deity associated with fertility, love, and healing. She taught seiðr to mankind and was called upon for childbirth and recovery from serious illness. Odin, though a god of war and wisdom, also knew healing runes. In the Havamal and the poetic Edda, Odin claims to know charms that can stop bleeding, cure fever, and save a man from poison. Thor, despite his rough demeanor, was invoked for protection from disease-causing giants and trolls, and his hammer Mjölnir was carved onto amulets to ward off sickness.

Eir was a lesser-known goddess dedicated specifically to healing. In the poetic Edda, she is described as the best physician among the Ēsir, and her name appears in kennings for women who were skilled in medicine. Some scholars believe Eir may have been a guardian of holy springs where the sick came to seek cures. Offerings of silver, cloth, or food were left at her sacred wells.

Symbolic and Magic Protection

Rune carving was a powerful healing tool. The Ægishjálmur (Helm of Awe) and the Vegvísir (wayfinder) are often cited as protective symbols, but archaeological finds show simpler rune charms—like the sequence ALU—carved onto bone or wood and placed near sickbeds. Other charms combined runes with images of animals: a boar carved on a bedpost was believed to guard the sleeping from fever; a raven scratched onto a bowl of broth was thought to transfer Odin’s wisdom to the invalid. Amulets made from amber, bear claws, or boar tusks were worn for general health. Amber was especially prized because of its static charge, which Norse peoples associated with life energy.

Sacrifices (blót) to the gods frequently accompanied healing rituals. Animals (or in rare cases humans) were killed, and their blood was sprinkled on the patient and around the homestead. The ritual meal that followed was believed to transfer the animal’s vitality to the community. For chronic illnesses, a votive offering—a weapon, a ring, or a piece of clothing—might be left at a sacred grove or spring. Some healing springs, like those at Tissø in Denmark, have yielded thousands of such offerings, suggesting a long tradition of pilgrimage for the sick.

To explore the archaeological evidence of ritual healing, see the Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo’s Viking Age collection.

Surgical Practices and Advanced Wound Care

Contrary to the stereotype of Vikings as brutish raiders, archaeological evidence suggests they had surprisingly sophisticated surgical techniques. Healers performed trepanations (drilling holes in the skull), amputation, and wound debridement using tools that were essentially those of everyday craftsmen repurposed for medicine. Knives, awls, saws, and even wood-carving tools were sterilized in fire and wielded with remarkable precision. Skilled healers knew the anatomy of the body through observation of battle casualties and animal slaughter, giving them practical knowledge of how to avoid major blood vessels and nerves.

Battlefield Medicine

A Viking warrior injured in battle could expect a sequence of care. First, the wound was cleaned with beer or mead—both of which contain alcohol and antimicrobial properties. Then, a poultice of yarrow, garlic, and honey was applied. Honey was particularly prized for its ability to draw moisture from wounds and inhibit bacterial growth, a practice that modern science has only recently validated. For wounds that were deep or contaminated, healers would pack them with honey-soaked moss, which acted as a natural absorbent dressing.

Surgeons also used needles made from bone or metal to stitch deep cuts. Thread was made from dried sinew or horsehair, which was strong and antiseptic. For arrow removal, they used specialized forceps and probes. If an arrowhead was barbed or embedded in bone, healers would cut around it with a fine-edged knife, then extract it carefully to avoid further damage. Some graves contain medical tweezers and scalpels, indicating that dedicated surgical instrument sets existed.

Amputation, while rare, was performed when a limb was hopelessly crushed or gangrenous. Healers would bind a tourniquet of leather cord above the injury, then saw through bone using a long iron blade. The stump was cauterized with a red-hot iron to stop bleeding and seal the wound. Survival rates were low, but evidence from a buried adult male at the Varnhem monastery shows healed amputation of a forearm, suggesting the patient lived for years after the procedure.

Dentistry and Oral Health

Viking teeth were generally healthy due to a coarse, low-sugar diet. However, oral infections and broken teeth from combat or accidents were common. Healers treated abscesses by lancing them with a red-hot needle. Tooth extraction was performed using iron forceps. Evidence from the Viking town of Ribe shows that some individuals had intentionally filed teeth, likely for ritual or cosmetic reasons, and healers would have been responsible for managing the pain and infection afterward. Toothpicks of bone and twig whisks for cleaning teeth have been found in medieval Scandinavian layers, pointing to routine oral hygiene.

Skull trepanation is well-documented in Viking-age remains. Healers used a circular saw or sharpened flint to carefully remove a disc of bone, presumably to relieve pressure from head trauma or to treat severe migraines and epilepsy. Thirty percent of trepanated skulls from the period show signs of healing, indicating a surprisingly high survival rate. Some skulls even show multiple holes, suggesting repeated procedures on the same patient.

Women as Healers and Caretakers

Women were the primary caregivers in Viking society. They prepared medicines, midwifed births, and managed the health of the household and livestock. The sagas mention women like Gunnhildr (often suspected of witchcraft) who had extensive knowledge of herbs and magic. A woman’s reputation could be elevated or destroyed based on her skill in healing—those who failed to cure a patient were sometimes accused of sorcery. On the other hand, a successful healer could gain status and authority, sometimes becoming a respected advisor to chieftains.

Midwifery and Childbirth

Childbirth was one of the most dangerous periods for Viking women. Midwives used ergot (a fungus that grows on rye, containing compounds that induce contractions) with extreme caution, as overdose could be fatal. They relied heavily on chamomile, raspberry leaf, and mugwort teas to ease labor. A birthing chair, often carved from a single log, was used in wealthier households. The mother’s family would prepare protective runes and charms to hang above the bed.

After birth, the midwife would assist with breastfeeding and ensure the newborn was shown to the spirits. Naming ceremonies often included a health blessing spoken over water or mead. Women also developed knowledge of fertility remedies: infusions of red clover and nettle were given to women who had difficulty conceiving, and certain rune staves were carved into birthing beds to call upon Freyja’s protection.

Archaeological Evidence of Viking Medicine

Excavations at major Viking sites have yielded direct evidence of medical practices. At the settlement of Hedeby (modern Germany), archaeologists found surgical tools including forceps, probes, and small knives. One particularly notable find is a set of bone-handled tweezers, possibly used for removing splinters or for delicate wound cleaning. At the Oseberg ship burial in Norway, a wooden chest contained remains of medicinal plants, including wild carrot, juniper, and hops—the latter used as a sedative and sleep aid.

A burial at Birse in Scotland contained a woman interred with a staff, a pouch of herbs, and a bear claw amulet—likely a völva or healer. This woman was positioned with a bronze bowl, suggesting she used it for mixing potions or for ritual washing. Similar burials in Birka, Sweden, include folding scales and weights, indicating that healers also weighed ingredients precisely for their remedies.

Botanical remains from York (Jorvik) show that residents had access to imported figs, grapes, and exotic spices, but also used local plants like stinging nettle (for anemia), dandelion (for liver complaints), and elderberry (for respiratory infections). Coprolite (fossilized feces) analysis reveals a high incidence of intestinal parasites, explaining why wormwood, tansy, and garlic were so widely used. The prevalence of parasite eggs also suggests that Vikings had a pragmatic understanding of hygiene—latrines were often placed away from water sources, and handwashing before meals is mentioned in several saga accounts.

For more on archaeological evidence, see the Jorvik Viking Centre’s research on medicinal plants.

Comparison with Contemporary Healing Systems

Viking medicine did not develop in isolation. Contact with the British Isles, Francia, and Byzantium brought new ideas. Anglo-Saxon leechbooks (medical manuscripts) share many remedies with Norse traditions, including the use of betony for headache and yarrow for wounds. Monastic Christianity gradually introduced humoral theory from Galen, but Scandinavian healers often adapted rather than replaced their own practices. For example, imported prayers to St. Benedict or St. Cyriacus were inscribed onto rune sticks and used alongside older incantations.

The Islamic world also influenced Viking medicine through trade. Silver coins from the Caliphate and Byzantine silk have been found in Scandinavian graves, showing that ideas and materials flowed freely. Surgeons in Cordoba and Baghdad had access to distilled alcohol and advanced surgical texts; some of this knowledge likely reached the North via travelers and mercenaries in the Varangian Guard. The use of distilled alcohol as a wound disinfectant, mentioned in later Scandinavian folk medicine, may have origins in these exchanges.

Celtic healing—especially from Ireland and Scotland—shared a deep respect for sacred springs and wells. The Vikings who settled in Dublin and the Hebrides adopted local patron saints who were often miracle healers, syncretizing Christian and Norse beliefs. At holy wells, devotees would leave offerings and tie ribbons (clooties) to nearby trees, hoping to transfer their illness to the cloth. This practice persists in parts of Scotland and Ireland today, a living link to the healing traditions that Vikings encountered.

Legacy and Modern Revival

Although Norse medicine was gradually supplanted by Christian monastic healing and later university-trained physicians, many herbal remedies persisted in Scandinavian folk medicine until industrialization. Today, a revival of interest in Viking medicine has led to modern adaptations: for instance, yarrow is sold in health food stores as a wound-healing tincture, and willow bark tablets are marketed as “natural aspirin.” Birch tar is still used in some natural skincare products for its antiseptic properties.

Reenactment groups and botanical gardens often host workshops on Norse healing. The Viking Heritage Park in Ribe, Denmark, has reconstructed apothecary gardens and hosts demonstrations of salve-making. Some practitioners combine Norse remedies with modern essential oils and herbalism in a holistic approach that respects the original traditions while applying contemporary safety standards. Academic research into Viking medicine continues to expand, with new excavations uncovering evidence of pharmaceutical practices—such as the recent discovery of a mortar and pestle at a farmstead in Greenland, suggesting that even remote Norse settlers specialized in compounding remedies.

The enduring appeal of Viking medicine lies in its pragmatic yet spiritual character. It reminds us that before laboratory science, healing was both a practical craft and a profound connection to nature and community.